
予期された記憶テストと予期されない記憶テストに対して、作業記憶内の注意の再方向付けが異なることが明らかになった。予期された記憶テストでは、初期の注意の方向付けに依存せずに、追加の確認 - "二重チェック" - が行われる。一方、予期されない記憶テストでは、代替の記憶内容への注意の再集中が長期化する。


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A classic distinction from the domain of external attention is that between anticipatory orienting and subsequent re-orienting of attention to unexpected events. Whether and how humans also re-orient attention ‘in mind’ following expected and unexpected working-memory tests remains elusive. We leveraged spatial modulations in neural activity and gaze to isolate re-orienting within the spatial layout of visual working memory following central memory tests of certain, expected, or unexpected mnemonic content. Besides internal orienting after predictive cues, we unveil a second stage of internal attentional deployment following both expected and unexpected memory tests. Following expected tests, internal attentional deployment was not contingent on prior orienting, suggesting an additional verification – “double checking” – in memory. Following unexpected tests, re-focusing of alternative memory content was prolonged. This brings attentional re-orienting to the domain of working memory and underscores how memory tests can invoke either a verification or a revision of our internal focus.

### Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

All data and analysis scripts are publicly available in the OSF: <https://osf.io/5wexp/>.

Re-focusing visual working memory during expected and unexpected memory tests

視覚的作業記憶における予期された記憶テストと予期されない記憶テストに対する注意の再方向付けの動態

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霊長類における前頭葉の2つの領域(前頭極と背外側前頭前野)の大きさは、体重、1日の移動距離(生態的要因)、個体密度(社会的要因)によって最もよく説明される。前頭極は社会的要因と生態的要因の両方に強く関連しているのに対し、背外側前頭前野は生態的要因との関連が強い。


The diversity of cognitive skills across primates remains both a fascinating and a controversial issue. Recent comparative studies provided conflicting results regarding the contribution of social vs ecological constraints to the evolution of cognition. Here, we used an interdisciplinary approach combining comparative cognitive neurosciences and behavioral ecology. Using brain imaging data from 16 primate species, we measured the size of two prefrontal brain regions, the frontal pole (FP) and the dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), respectively involved in metacognition and working memory, and examined their relation to a combination of socio-ecological variables. The size of these prefrontal regions, as well as the whole brain, was best explained by three variables: body mass, daily traveled distance (an index of ecological constraints) and population density (an index of social constraints). The strong influence of ecological constraints on FP and DLPFC volumes suggests that both metacognition and working memory are critical for foraging in primates. Interestingly, FP volume was much more sensitive to social constraints than DLPFC volume, in line with laboratory studies showing an implication of FP in complex social interactions. Thus, our data highlights the relative weight of social vs ecological constraints on the evolution of specific prefrontal brain regions and their associated cognitive operations in primates.

Funding This work was supported by recurrent funding from CNRS to SB, SP and CG. It was also supported by the ANR-17-CE27-0005 (HOMTECH).

### Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Linking the evolution of two prefrontal brain regions to social and foraging challenges in primates

霊長類における2つの前頭葉領域の進化と社会的-採餌的課題との関連


霊長類における2つの前頭葉領域の進化と社会的・採餌的課題との関連



共通の構造を利用することで、限られた作業記憶容量の中で複数の系列を効率的に保持できる。


Daily experiences often involve the processing of multiple sequences, yet storing them challenges the limited capacity of working memory (WM). To achieve efficient memory storage, relational structures shared by sequences would be leveraged to reorganize and compress information. Here, participants memorized a sequence of items with different colors and spatial locations and later reproduced the full color and location sequences one after another. Crucially, we manipulated the consistency between location and color sequence trajectories. First, sequences with consistent trajectories demonstrate improved memory performance and a trajectory correlation between reproduced color and location sequences. Second, sequences with consistent trajectories show neural reactivation of common trajectories, and display spontaneous replay of color sequences when recalling locations. Finally, neural reactivation correlates with WM behavior. Our findings suggest that shared common structure is leveraged for storage of multiple sequences through compressed encoding and neural replay, together facilitating efficient information organization in WM.

### Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Shared structure facilitates working memory of multiple sequences

記憶容量の限界を超える複数の系列の効率的な保持を可能にする共通構造


食品選択における意思決定では、選択された代替案の価値が増加し、選択されなかった代替案の価値が減少するという再評価プロセスが観察される。この再評価プロセスは、意思決定中の熟考によって生じると考えられる。


Many decisions are expressed as a preference for one item over another. When these items are familiar, it is often assumed that the decision maker assigns a value to each of the items and chooses the item with the highest value. These values may be imperfectly recalled, but are assumed to be stable over the course of an interview or psychological experiment. Choices that are inconsistent with a stated valuation are thought to occur because of unspecified noise that corrupts the neural representation of value. Assuming that the noise is uncorrelated over time, the pattern of choices and response times in value-based decisions are modeled within the framework of Bounded Evidence Accumulation (BEA), similar to that used in perceptual decision-making. In BEA, noisy evidence samples accumulate over time until the accumulated evidence for one of the options reaches a threshold. Here, we argue that the assumption of temporally uncorrelated noise, while reasonable for perceptual decisions, is not reasonable for value-based decisions. Subjective values depend on the internal state of the decision maker, including their desires, needs, priorities, attentional state, and goals, which may change over time. These internal states may change over time, or undergo revaluation, as will the subjective values. We reasoned that these hypothetical value changes should be detectable in the pattern of choices made over a sequence of decisions. We reanalyzed data from a well-studied task in which participants were presented with pairs of snacks and asked to choose the one they preferred. Using a novel algorithm ( Reval ), we show that the subjective value of the items changes significantly during a short experimental session (about 1 hour). Values derived with Reval explain choice and response time better than explicitly stated values. They also better explain the BOLD signal in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, known to represent the value of decision alternatives. Revaluation is also observed in a BEA model in which successive evidence samples are not assumed to be independent. We argue that revaluation is a consequence of the process by which values are constructed during deliberation to resolve preference choices.

### Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Value construction through sequential sampling explains serial dependencies in decision making

食品選択における連続的サンプリングを通じた価値構築が意思決定の系列依存性を説明する


記憶検索時の神経活動パターンは、学習された認知地図内の距離に応じて変化する。近接した項目ほど強く再活性化される一方で、遠隔の項目は弱く再活性化される。


Declarative memory retrieval is thought to involve reinstatement of neuronal activity patterns elicited and encoded during a prior learning episode. Furthermore, it is suggested that two mechanisms operate during reinstatement, dependent on task demands: individual memory items can be reactivated simultaneously as a clustered occurrence or, alternatively, replayed sequentially as temporally separate instances. In the current study, participants learned associations between images that were embedded in a directed graph network and retained this information over a brief 8-minute consolidation period. During a subsequent cued recall session, participants retrieved the learned information while undergoing magnetoencephalographic (MEG) recording. Using a trained stimulus decoder, we found evidence for clustered reactivation of learned material. Reactivation strength of individual items during clustered reactivation decreased as a function of increasing graph distance, an ordering present solely for successful retrieval but not for retrieval failure. In line with previous research, we found evidence that sequential replay was dependent on retrieval performance and was most evident in low performers. The results provide evidence for distinct performance-dependent retrieval mechanisms with graded clustered reactivation emerging as a plausible mechanism to search within abstract cognitive maps.

### Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Reactivation strength during cued recall is modulated by graph distance within cognitive maps

記憶検索中の神経活動パターンが認知地図内の距離に応じて変化する